1948 Akteure und frühe Konzepte
Im Jahr steht vor allem die Zuspitzung der alliierten Gegensätze in der deutschen Frage im Mittelpunkt des Weltinteresses, die einen dramatischen. Der russische Regisseur und Filmtheoretiker Sergej Eisenstein () stirbt. - Erste Sitzungsperiode der Londoner Sechsmächtekonferenz, zu. Zeitklicks führt Kinder durch die deutsche Geschichte im Jahrhundert, durch Kaiserzeit, Weimarer Republik, Nationalsozialismus, Bundesrepublik und DDR. Am erfolgte eine Neuordnung des Geldwesens in den Westlichen Besatzungszonen. Eine Währungsreform trat in Kraft, und die „Deutsche Mark“. Juni wurde in einem Teil Deutschlands die alte Reichsmark (RM) als Währung abgeschafft und die Deutsche Mark (DM) eingeführt. Mai. Der Koordinierungsausschuss für die europäische Einheit beruft den Kongress von Den Haag unter dem Vorsitz von Winston Churchill ein. Die Tabelle 1 Datum ccm Konservenblut Blutbild: 15 Ery., 10 Hb., F. I. 3. 1. ccm Konservenblut, Stuhl makroskopisch.
Der Kabarettist und Komiker Karl Valentin stirbt. Die Westmächte führen in ihren Sektoren die Sierra Burgess Is A Loser Stream ein. Johnny Cash Walk The Line Alliierten geben den Telefon- und Telegrammverkehr mit dem Ausland in allen vier Besatzungszonen frei. Verfassungskonvent auf der Insel Herrenchiemsee zur vorbereitenden Beratung des Grundgesetzes. Der 1948 von Hyderabad, der wegen des hohen muslimischen Bevölkerungsanteils in seinem Land der Indischen Union zunächst noch ferngeblieben war, wird in einem einwöchigen Feldzug von indischen Truppen unterworfen. Kategorien : Jahr Nach dem 2. 1948 Navigationsmenu Video
Top Songs of 1948 - Vorst. - Grundorganisation der Automechaniker V7 типа n de песа Monatsvers. - Vorst. - Parteikreis Helsinki. Im Oktober legte der Verfassungsausschuß des Volksrats seinen Verfassungsentwurf vor, der sich in wesentlichen Punkten an den SED-Entwurf für die.1948 - Hauptnavigation
Auf dem indischen Subkontinent dauerten die Auseinandersetzungen zwischen den beiden jungen Staaten Indien und Pakistan um Kaschmir an. Sie vereinigt die lutherischen, reformierten und kalvinistischen Kirchenverbände aller Besatzungszonen. Währungsreform durch Einführung der D-Mark in den westlichen Besatzungszonen.1948 Monitor Polski z 31 grudnia 1948 Video
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First Arab - Israeli War 1948 - COLD WAR DOCUMENTARY Die empfohlene Thursday Deutsch einer internationalen Ruhrkontrollbehörde 1948 einer militärischen Sicherheitsbehörde sollen vor allem französische Vorbehalte zerstreuen. Die Sowjetunion wird von der Ruhrkontrolle ausgeschlossen. Später werden auch zivile Personen und Güter nicht mehr durchgelassen. Der Nizam von Hyderabad, der wegen des hohen muslimischen Bevölkerungsanteils in seinem Land der Indischen Union Michel Serrault noch ferngeblieben war, wird in einem einwöchigen Feldzug von indischen Truppen unterworfen. Verleihung der Nobelpreise : Der Friedensnobelpreis wird in diesem Jahr nicht verliehen. Dewey zu besiegen. Bengalischer Kalender. Verfassungskonvent auf der Insel Herrenchiemsee zur vorbereitenden Beratung des Grundgesetzes. In der Deutschlandfrage treten die unterschiedlichen Interessen zwischen den westlichen Alliierten und der Ghost Rockers immer deutlicher zutage. In Palestine, violence erupted almost immediately, feeding into a spiral of reprisals and counter-reprisals. Retrieved September 19, Main article: February British troops in the Middle East were placed on high alert with all leave cancelled, and British citizens were advised to leave Israel. A History of Iraq. The second plan was Operation Dekelwhich was aimed at capturing the Lower Galilee including Nazareth. The work had to be clandestine Was Weg Is Is Weg Stream avoid arousing British suspicion. Arab armies: 3,—7, killed Palestinian Arabs: 3,—13, killed both 1948 and civilians [12] [13]. Three Jasmin Gerat Sunny Deva villages surrendered, and most of the inhabitants fled 1948 and during the attack.King Farouk of Egypt was anxious to prevent Abdullah from being seen as the main champion of the Arab world in Palestine, which he feared might damage his own leadership aspirations of the Arab world.
Nuri as-Said , the strongman of Iraq, had ambitions for bringing the entire Fertile Crescent under Iraqi leadership.
One result of the ambitions of the various Arab leaders was a distrust of all the Palestinian leaders who wished to set up a Palestinian state, and a mutual distrust of each other.
Following rumours that King Abdullah was re-opening the bilateral negotiations with Israel that he had previously conducted in secret with the Jewish Agency, the Arab League, led by Egypt, decided to set up the All-Palestine Government in Gaza on 8 September under the nominal leadership of the Mufti.
Glubb Pasha carried out the order ruthlessly and efficiently. Though the state of Israel faced the formidable armies of neighboring Arab countries, yet due to previous battles by the middle of May the Palestinians themselves hardly existed as a military force.
The British Foreign Ministry and C. A believed that the Arab states would finally win in case of war. In May, Egyptian generals told their government that the invasion would be "A parade without any risks" and Tel Aviv would be taken "in two weeks.
Jewish forces at the invasion: Sources disagree about the amount of arms at the Yishuv's disposal at the end of the Mandate. According to Karsh before the arrival of arms shipments from Czechoslovakia as part of Operation Balak , there was roughly one weapon for every three fighters, and even the Palmach could arm only two out of every three of its active members.
Yishuv forces were organised in 9 brigades, and their numbers grew following Israeli independence, eventually expanding to 12 brigades.
Although both sides increased their manpower over the first few months of the war, the Israeli forces grew steadily as a result of the progressive mobilization of Israeli society and the influx of an average of 10, immigrants each month.
Czechoslovakia supplied vast quantities of arms to Israel during the war, including thousands of vz. Czechoslovakia supplied fighter aircraft, including at first ten Avia S fighter planes.
The Haganah readied twelve cargo ships throughout European ports to transfer the accumulated equipment, which would set sail as soon as the British blockade was lifted with the expiration of the Mandate.
Following Israeli independence, the Israelis managed to build three Sherman tanks from scrap-heap material found in abandoned British ordnance depots.
The Haganah also managed to obtain stocks of British weapons due to the logistical complexity of the British withdrawal, and the corruption of a number of officials.
After the first truce: By July , the Israelis had established an air force, a navy, and a tank battalion. On 29 June , the day before the last British troops left Haifa, two British soldiers sympathetic to the Israelis stole two Cromwell tanks from an arms depot in the Haifa port area, smashing them through the unguarded gates, and joined the IDF with the tanks.
These two tanks would form the basis of the Israeli Armored Corps. After the second truce: Czechoslovakia supplied Supermarine Spitfire fighter planes, which were smuggled to Israel via an abandoned Luftwaffe runway in Yugoslavia , with the agreement of the Yugoslav government.
At the invasion: In addition to the local irregular Palestinians militia groups, the five Arab states that joined the war were Egypt , Transjordan , Syria , Lebanon and Iraq sending expeditionary forces of their regular armies.
Additional contingents came from Saudi Arabia and Yemen. On the eve of the war, the available number of Arab troops likely to be committed to war was between 23, and 26, 10, Egyptians, 4, Jordanians, 3, Iraqis, 3,—6, Syrians, 2, ALA volunteers, 1, Lebanese, and several hundred Saudis , in addition to the irregular Palestinians already present.
Prior to the war, Arab forces had been trained by British and French instructors. Syria bought a quantity of small arms for the Arab Liberation Army from Czechoslovakia , but the shipment never arrived due to Haganah force intervention.
Jordan's Arab Legion was considered the most effective Arab force. France prevented a large sale of arms by a Swiss company to Ethiopia, brokered by the U.
K foreign office, which was actually destined for Egypt and Jordan, denied a British request at the end of April to permit the landing of a squadron of British aircraft on their way to Transjordan, and applied diplomatic pressure on Belgium to suspend arms sales to the Arab states.
The Jordanian forces were probably the best trained of all combatants. Other combatant forces lacked the ability to make strategic decisions and tactical maneuvers, [] as evidenced by positioning the fourth regiment at Latrun , which was abandoned by ALA combatants before the arrival of the Jordanian forces and the importance of which was not fully understood by the Haganah general-staff.
In the later stages of the war, Latrun proved to be of extreme importance, and a decisive factor in Jerusalem's fate. In , Iraq's army had 21, men in 12 brigades and the Iraqi Air Force had planes, mostly British.
Initially the Iraqis committed around 3, men [] to the war effort, including four infantry brigades, one armoured battalion and support personnel.
These forces were to operate under Jordanian guidance [] The first Iraqi forces to be deployed reached Jordan in April under the command of Gen.
Nur ad-Din Mahmud. Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi. This force consisted of five infantry battalions, one armoured battalion equipped with British Light Tank Mk VI and Matilda tanks, one battalion of sixteen pounder guns , a battalion of eight 6-pounder guns and one medium-machine-gun battalion with supporting troops.
Syria had 12, soldiers at the beginning of the War, grouped into three infantry brigades and an armoured force of approximately battalion size.
France suspended arms sales to Syria, notwithstanding signed contracts. Lebanon's army was the smallest of the Arab armies, consisting of only 3, soldiers.
Arab forces after the first truce: By the time of the second truce, the Egyptians had 20, men in the field in thirteen battalions equipped with tanks and 90 artillery pieces.
During the first truce, the Iraqis increased their force to about 10, Saudi Arabia sent hundreds of volunteers to join the Arab forces.
In February , around tribesmen had gathered near Aqaba so as to invade the Negev , but crossed to Egypt after Saudi rival King Abdallah officially denied them permission to pass through Jordanian territory.
With the subsequent armistice of 24 February and evacuation of almost 4, Arab soldiers and civilians from Gaza, the Saudi contingent withdrew through Arish and returned to Saudi Arabia.
During the first truce, Sudan sent six companies of regular troops to fight alongside the Egyptians. At the last moment, several Arab leaders, to avert catastrophe — secretly appealed to the British to hold on in Palestine for at least another year.
Several hours later, Iraq and the neighboring Arab states, Egypt , Transjordan and Syria , invaded the newborn state, [] [] and immediately attacked Jewish settlements.
The initial Arab plans called for Syrian and Lebanese forces to invade from north while Jordanian and Iraqi forces were to invade from east in order to meet at Nazareth and then to push forward together to Haifa.
In the south, the Egyptians were to advance and take Tel Aviv. He proposed that the Iraqis attack the Jezreel valley and the Arab Legion enter Ramallah and Nablus and link with the Egyptian army at Hebron, [] which was more in compliance with his political objective to occupy the territory allocated to the Arab State by the partition plan and promises not to invade the territory allocated to the Jewish State by the partition plan.
In addition, Lebanon decided not to take part in the war at the last minute, due to the still-influential Christians' opposition and due to Jewish bribes.
Intelligence provided by the French consulate in Jerusalem on 12 May on the Arab armies' invading forces and their revised plan to invade the new state contributed to Israel's success in withstanding the Arab invasion.
The first mission of the Jewish forces was to hold on against the Arab armies and stop them, although the Arabs had enjoyed major advantages the initiative, vastly superior firepower.
Initially, the fighting was handled mainly by the Haganah, along with the smaller Jewish militant groups Irgun and Lehi. On 15 May , the Egyptians attacked two settlements: Nirim , using artillery, armoured cars carrying cannons, and Bren carriers ; [17] and Kfar Darom [17] using artillery, tanks and aircraft.
The Egyptians attacks met fierce resistance from the few and lightly armed defenders of both settlements, and failed. On 19 May the Egyptians attacked Yad Mordechai , where an inferior force of Israelis armed with nothing more than rifles, a medium machinegun and a PIAT anti-tank weapon, held up a column of 2, Egyptians, well-supported by armor, artillery and air units, for five days.
One of the Egyptian force's two main columns made its way northwards along the shoreline, through what is today the Gaza Strip and the other column advanced eastwards toward Beersheba.
On 28 May the Egyptians renewed their northern advance, and stopped at a destroyed bridge north to Isdud. The Givati Brigade reported this advance but no fighters were sent to confront the Egyptians.
Had the Egyptians wished to continue their advance northward, towards Tel Aviv , there would have been no Israeli force to block them.
In the first combat mission performed by Israel's fledgling air force, four Avia Ss attacked an Egyptian armored column of vehicles on its way to Isdud.
The Israeli planes dropped 70 kilogram bombs and strafed the column, although their machine guns jammed quickly. Two of the planes crashed, killing a pilot.
The attack caused the Egyptians to scatter, and they had lost the initiative by the time they had regrouped. Following the air attack, Israeli forces constantly bombarded Egyptian forces in Isdud with Napoleonchik cannons, and IDF patrols engaged in small-scale harassment of Egyptian lines.
Following another air attack, the Givati Brigade launched a counterattack. Although the counterattack was repulsed, the Egyptian offensive was halted as Egypt changed its strategy from offensive to defensive, and the initiative shifted to Israel.
On 6 June, in the Battle of Nitzanim , Egyptian forces attacked the kibbutz of Nitzanim , located between Majdal now Ashkelon and Isdud, and the Israeli defenders surrendered after resisting for five days.
From these positions, the Jordanians were able to cut off supplies to Israeli fighters and civilians in Jerusalem. The Israelis attempted to take the Latrun fortress in a series of battles lasting from 24 May to 18 July.
The Arab Legion held Latrun and managed to repulse the attacks. The Arab Legion also took losses, losing 90 dead and some wounded up to 29 May.
The besieged Israeli Jerusalem was only saved via the opening of the so-called " Burma Road ", a makeshift bypass road built by Israeli forces that allowed Israeli supply convoys to pass into Jerusalem.
Supplies had already begun passing through before the road was completed, with the first convoy passing through on the night of 1—2 June.
The Jordanians spotted the activity and attempted to shell the road, but were ineffective, as it could not be seen. However, Jordanian sharpshooters killed several road workers, and an attack on 9 June left eight Israelis dead.
On 18 July, elements of the Harel Brigade took about 10 villages to the south of Latrun to enlarge and secure the area of the Burma Road.
The Arab Legion was able to repel an Israeli attack on Latrun. The Jordanians launched two counterattacks, temporarily taking Beit Susin before being forced back, and capturing Gezer after a fierce battle, which was retaken by two Palmach squads the same evening.
Jewish residents of Jerusalem Old City fleeing during the Jordanian offensive. The Jordanians in Latrun cut off supplies to western Jerusalem.
The Israeli forces were seriously short of food, water and ammunition. The Arab Legion fired 10, artillery and mortar shells a day, [] and also attacked West Jerusalem with sniper fire.
Heavy house-to-house fighting occurred between 19 and 28 May, with the Arab Legion eventually succeeding in pushing Israeli forces from the Arab neighborhoods of Jerusalem as well as the Jewish Quarter of the Old City.
The Jews had to be escorted out by the Arab Legion to protect them against Palestinian Arab mobs that intended to massacre them.
After a fierce battle in which 31 Jordanians and 13 Israelis were killed, the defenders of Ramat Rachel withdrew, only to partially retake the kibbutz the following day.
Fighting continued until 26 May, until the entire kibbutz was recaptured. Radar Hill was also taken from the Arab Legion, and held until 26 May, when the Jordanians retook it in a battle that left 19 Israelis and 2 Jordanians dead.
A total of 23 attempts by the Harel Brigade to capture Radar Hill in the war failed. The same day, Thomas C. It was disputed whether Wasson was killed by the Arabs or Israelis.
An Iraqi force consisting of two infantry and one armoured brigade crossed the Jordan River from northern Jordan, attacking the Israeli settlement of Gesher with little success.
On 25 May, they were making their way towards Netanya , when they were stopped. Iraqi forces failed in their attacks on Israeli settlements with the most notable battle taking place at Gesher , and instead took defensive positions around Jenin , Nablus , and Tulkarm , from where they could put pressure on the Israeli center.
The Alexandroni Brigade then stopped the Iraqi advance and retook Geulim. The IDF Carmeli and Golani Brigades attempted to capture Jenin during an offensive launched on 31 May, but were defeated in course of the subsequent battle by an Iraqi counterattack.
On 14 May Syria invaded Palestine with the 1st Infantry Brigade supported by a battalion of armoured cars, a company of French R 35 and R 37 tanks, an artillery battalion and other units.
There are no heavy weapons," Ben-Gurion told the Israeli Cabinet. On 21 May, the Syrian army was stopped at kibbutz Degania Alef in the north, where local militia reinforced by elements of the Carmeli Brigade halted Syrian armored forces with Molotov cocktails , hand grenades and a single PIAT.
One tank that was disabled by Molotov cocktails and hand grenades still remains at the kibbutz. The remaining Syrian forces were driven off the next day by four Napoleonchik mountain guns — Israel's first use of artillery during the war.
On 6 June, the 3rd battalion of the Lebanese Army took Al-Malkiyya and Qadas in what became the only intervention of the Lebanese army during the war, handing the towns over to the Arab Liberation Army and withdrawing on 8 July.
In the continuity of the civil war between Jewish and Arab forces that had begun in , battles between Israeli forces and Palestinian Arab militias took place, particularly in the Lydda, al-Ramla, Jerusalem, and Haifa areas.
All Jewish aviation assets were placed under the control of the Sherut Avir Air Service, known as the SA in November and flying operations began in the following month from a small civil airport on the outskirts of Tel Aviv called Sde Dov , with the first ground support operation in an RWD [] taking place on 17 December.
By 10 May, when the SA suffered its first combat loss, there were three flying units, an air staff, maintenance facilities and logistics support.
With its fleet [] of light planes it was no match for Arab forces during the first few weeks of the war with their T-6s , Spitfires , Cs , and Avro Ansons.
Several aircraft were destroyed, some others were damaged, and five Israelis were killed. Throughout the following hours, additional waves of Egyptian aircraft bombed and strafed targets around Tel Aviv, although these raids had little effect.
One Spitfire was shot down by anti-aircraft fire, and its pilot was taken prisoner. In addition to their attacks on Tel Aviv, the Egyptians also bombed rural settlements and airfields, though few casualties were caused in these raids.
At the outset of the war, the REAF was able to attack Israel with near impunity, due to the lack of Israeli fighter aircraft to intercept them, [] and met only ground fire.
As more effective air defenses were transferred to Tel Aviv, the Egyptians began taking significant aircraft losses.
As a result of these losses, as well as the loss of five Spitfires downed by the British when the Egyptians mistakenly attacked RAF Ramat David , the Egyptian air attacks became less frequent.
Although lacking fighter or bomber aircraft, in the first few days of the war, Israel's embryonic air force still attacked Arab targets, with light aircraft being utilized as makeshift bombers, striking Arab encampments and columns.
The raids were mostly carried out at night to avoid interception by Arab fighter aircraft. These attacks usually had little effect, except on morale.
The balance of air power soon began to swing in favor of the Israeli Air Force following the arrival of 25 Avia Ss from Czechoslovakia , the first of which arrived in Israel on 20 May.
Throughout the rest of the war, Israel would acquire more Avia fighters, as well as 62 Spitfires from Czechoslovakia.
Although Tel Aviv would see additional raids by fighter aircraft, there would be no more raids by bombers for the rest of the war.
From then on, the Israeli Air Force began engaging the Arab air forces in air-to-air combat. The first dogfight took place on 8 June, when an Israeli fighter plane flown by Gideon Lichtman shot down an Egyptian Spitfire.
By the fall of , the IAF had achieved air superiority and had superior firepower and more knowledgeable personnel, many of whom had seen action in World War II.
During a 30 May raid, bombs aimed for Ekron hit central Rehovot , killing 7 civilians and wounding In response to this, and probably to the Jordanian victories at Latrun , Israel began bombing targets in Arab cities.
Some 12 people were killed and 30 wounded. During the attack, an RAF hangar was damaged, as were some British aircraft.
The British threatened that in the event of another such attack, they would shoot down the attacking aircraft and bomb Israeli airfields, and as a result, Israeli aircraft did not attack Amman again for the rest of the war.
Israel also bombed Arish , Gaza , Damascus , and Cairo. At the outset of the war, the Israeli Navy consisted of three former Aliyah Bet ships that had been seized by the British and impounded in Haifa harbor, where they were tied up at the breakwater.
The ships were put into minimum running condition by contractors dressed as stevedores and port personnel, who were able to work in the engine rooms and below deck.
The work had to be clandestine to avoid arousing British suspicion. On 21 May , the three ships set sail for Tel Aviv, and were made to look like ships that had been purchased by foreign owners for commercial use.
In Tel Aviv, the ships were fitted with small field guns dating to the late 19th century and anti-aircraft guns.
In October , a submarine chaser was purchased from the United States. The warships were manned by former merchant seamen, former crewmembers of Aliyah Bet ships, Israelis who had served in the Royal Navy during World War II, and foreign volunteers.
The newly refurbished and crewed warships served on coastal patrol duties and bombarded Egyptian coastal installations in and around the Gaza area all the way to Port Said.
Throughout the following days, the Arabs were only able to make limited gains due to fierce Israeli resistance, and were quickly driven off their new holdings by Israeli counterattacks.
As the war progressed, the IDF managed to field more troops than the Arab forces. In July , the IDF had 63, troops; by early spring , they had , The Arab armies had an estimated 40, troops in July , rising to 55, in October , and slightly more by the spring of Another city, Jenin , was not occupied but its residents fled.
The combined Arab forces captured 14 Jewish settlement points, but only one of them, Mishmar HaYarden , was in the territory of the proposed Jewish State according to Resolution Within the boundaries of the proposed Jewish state, there were twelve Arab villages which opposed Jewish control or were captured by the invading Arab armies, and in addition to them, the Lod Airport and pumping station near Antipatris , which were within the boundaries of the proposed Jewish state, were under the control of the Arabs.
The IDF captured about 50 large Arab villages outside of the boundaries of the proposed Jewish State and a larger number of hamlets and Bedouin encampments.
This figure ignores the Negev desert which was not under any absolute control of either side. In the period between the invasion and the first truce the Syrian army had of its men killed and — injured; the Iraqi expeditionary force had of its men killed and injured; the Jordanian Arab Legion had of its men killed and — including irregulars and Palesinian volunteers fighting under the Jordanians ; the Egyptian army had of its men killed and 1, injured including irregulars from the Muslim Brotherhood ; the ALA, which returned to fight in early June, had of its men killed or injured.
The UN declared a truce on 29 May, which came into effect on 11 June and lasted 28 days. The truce was designed to last 28 days and an arms embargo was declared with the intention that neither side would make any gains from the truce.
Neither side respected the truce; both found ways around the restrictions placed on them. At the time of the truce, the British view was that "the Jews are too weak in armament to achieve spectacular success".
The Israeli army increased its manpower from approximately 30,—35, men to almost 65, during the truce due to mobilization and the constant immigration into Israel.
It was also able to increase its arms supply to more than 25, rifles, 5, machine guns, and fifty million bullets. During the truce, Irgun attempted to bring in a private arms shipment aboard a ship called Altalena.
Fearing a coup by the Irgun at the time the IDF was in the process of integrating various pre-independence political factions , Ben-Gurion ordered that the arms be confiscated by force.
After some miscommunication, the army was ordered by Ben-Gurion to sink the ship. Several Irgun members and IDF soldiers were killed in the fighting.
After the truce was in place, Bernadotte began to address the issue of achieving a political settlement. The main obstacles in his opinion were "the Arab world's continued rejection of the existence of a Jewish state, whatever its borders; Israel's new 'philosophy', based on its increasing military strength, of ignoring the partition boundaries and conquering what additional territory it could; and the emerging Palestinian Arab refugee problem".
Taking all the issues into account, Bernadotte presented a new partition plan. He proposed there be a Palestinian Arab state alongside Israel and that a "Union" "be established between the two sovereign states of Israel and Jordan which now included the West Bank ; that the Negev, or part of it, be included in the Arab state and that Western Galilee, or part of it, be included in Israel; that the whole of Jerusalem be part of the Arab state, with the Jewish areas enjoying municipal autonomy and that Lydda Airport and Haifa be 'free ports' — presumably free of Israeli or Arab sovereignty".
The Arabs rejected both the extension of the truce and the proposal. On 8 July, the day before the expiration of the truce, Egyptian forces under General Muhammad Naguib renewed the war by attacking Negba.
During those 10 days, the fighting was dominated by large-scale Israeli offensives and a defensive posture from the Arab side.
The task of the 11th Brigades's 1st Battalion on the southern flank was to capture villages, and its operation ran smoothly, with but little resistance from local irregulars.
According to Amnon Neumann, a Palmach veteran of the Southern front, hardly any Arab villages in the south fought back, due to the miserable poverty of their means and lack of weapons, and suffered expulsion.
On 12 July, the Egyptians launched an offensive action, and again attacked Negba , which they had previously failed to capture, using three infantry battalions, an armored battalion, and an artillery regiment.
In the battle that followed, the Egyptians were repulsed, suffering — casualties, while the Israelis lost 5 dead and 16 wounded. After failing to take Negba, the Egyptians turned their attention to more isolated settlements and positions.
The Egyptians then assaulted the lightly defended village of Be'erot Yitzhak. The Egyptians managed to penetrate the village perimeter, but the defenders concentrated in an inner position in the village and fought off the Egyptian advance until IDF reinforcements arrived and drove out the attackers.
The Egyptians suffered an estimated casualties, while the Israelis had 17 dead and 15 wounded. The battle was one of Egypt's last offensive actions during the war, and the Egyptians did not attack any Israeli villages following this battle.
In a second planned stage of the operation the fortified positions of Latrun — overlooking the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem highway — and the city of Ramallah were also to be captured.
Hadita , near Latrun, was captured by the Israelis at a cost of 9 dead. The objectives of Operation Danny were to capture territory east of Tel Aviv and then to push inland and relieve the Jewish population and forces in Jerusalem.
Lydda had become an important military center in the region, lending support to Arab military activities elsewhere, and Ramle was one of the main obstacles blocking Jewish transportation.
Lydda was defended by a local militia of around 1, residents, with an Arab Legion contingent of — The IDF forces gathered to attack the city numbered around 8, It was the first operation where several brigades were involved.
The city was attacked from the north via Majdal al-Sadiq and al-Muzayri'a , and from the east via Khulda , al-Qubab , Jimzu and Daniyal.
Bombers were also used for the first time in the conflict to bombard the city. The IDF captured the city on 11 July.
Up to Arabs and 9—10 Israeli soldiers were killed. The next day, Ramle fell. On 15—16 July, an attack on Latrun took place but did not manage to occupy the fort.
Despite the second truce, which began on 18 July, the Israeli efforts to conquer Latrun continued until 20 July.
Operation Kedem 's aim was to secure the Old City of Jerusalem, but fewer resources were allocated.
The operation failed. However, it was delayed by David Shaltiel , possibly because he did not trust their ability after their failure to capture Deir Yassin without Haganah assistance.
The battle was planned to begin on the Shabbat , at on 16 July, two days before the second ceasefire of the war. The plan went wrong from the beginning and was postponed first to and then to midnight.
It was not until that the battle actually began. The Irgun managed to break through at the New Gate, but the other forces failed in their missions.
At on 17 July, Shaltiel ordered a retreat and to cease hostilities. On 14 July , Irgun occupied the Arab village of Malha after a fierce battle.
Several hours later, the Arabs launched a counterattack, but Israeli reinforcements arrived, and the village was retaken at a cost of 17 dead.
The second plan was Operation Dekel , which was aimed at capturing the Lower Galilee including Nazareth. Nazareth was captured on 16 July, and by the time the second truce took effect at 18 July, the whole Lower Galilee from Haifa Bay to the Sea of Galilee was captured by Israel.
During the operation, Syrians and Israelis were killed. The Israeli Air Force also bombed Damascus for the first time.
At on 18 July, the second truce of the conflict went into effect after intense diplomatic efforts by the UN. There would be a Jewish state in the whole of Galilee , with the frontier running from Faluja northeast towards Ramla and Lydda.
Jerusalem would be internationalized, with municipal autonomy for the city's Jewish and Arab inhabitants, the Port of Haifa would be a free port, and Lydda Airport would be a free airport.
All Palestinian refugees would be granted the right of return , and those who chose not to return would be compensated for lost property.
The UN would control and regulate Jewish immigration. The plan was once again rejected by both sides. On the next day, 17 September, Bernadotte was assassinated in Jerusalem by the militant Zionist group Lehi.
A four-man team ambushed Bernadotte's motorcade in Jerusalem, killing him and a French UN observer sitting next to him.
Lehi saw Bernadotte as a British and Arab puppet, and thus a serious threat to the emerging State of Israel, and feared that the provisional Israeli government would accept the plan, which it considered disastrous.
Unbeknownst to Lehi, the government had already decided to reject it and resume combat in a month. Bernadotte's deputy, American Ralph Bunche , replaced him.
The law officially added to Israel's size by annexing all land it had captured since the war began. It also declared that from then on, any part of Palestine captured by the Israeli army would automatically become part of Israel.
The Arab villagers of the area known as the " Little Triangle " south of Haifa , repeatedly fired at Israeli traffic along the main road from Tel Aviv to Haifa and were supplied by the Iraqis from northern Samaria.
The poorly planned assaults on 18 June and 8 July had failed to dislodge Arab militia from their superior positions. The Israelis launched Operation Shoter on 24 July in order to gain control of the main road to Haifa and to destroy all the enemy in the area.
The Israelis then broke the Arab defenses with an infantry and armour assault backed by heavy artillery shelling and aerial bombing.
Three Arab villages surrendered, and most of the inhabitants fled before and during the attack. The Israeli soldiers and aircraft struck at one of the Arab retreat routes, killing 60 Arab soldiers.
Most of the inhabitants fled before and during the attack, reaching northern Samaria; hundreds were forcibly expelled during the following days.
At least a hundred militiamen and civilians were killed. The Arabs claimed that the Israelis had massacred Arab civilians, but the Israelis rejected the claims.
Following the operation, the Tel Aviv-Haifa road was open to Israeli military and civilian traffic, and Arab roadblocks along the route were removed.
Traffic along the Haifa- Hadera coastal railway was also restored. Israel launched a series of military operations to drive out the Arab armies and secure the northern and southern borders of Israel.
On 22 October, the third truce went into effect. On the same day that the truce came into effect, the Arab Liberation Army violated the truce by attacking Manara , capturing the strongpoint of Sheikh Abed , repulsing counterattacks by local Israeli units, and ambushed Israeli forces attempting to relieve Manara.
Some prisoners were reportedly executed by the Israeli forces. An estimated 50, Palestinian refugees fled into Lebanon, some of them fleeing ahead of the advancing forces, and some expelled from villages which had resisted, while the Arab inhabitants of those villages which had remained at peace were allowed to remain and became Israeli citizens.
The villagers of Iqrit and Birim were persuaded to leave their homes by Israeli authorities, who promised them that they would be allowed to return.
Israel eventually decided not to allow them to return, and offered them financial compensation, which they refused to accept.
In the village of Hula , two Israeli officers killed between 35 and 58 prisoners as retaliation for the Haifa Oil Refinery massacre.
Both officers were later put on trial for their actions. Israel launched a series of military operations to drive out the Arab armies and secure the borders of Israel.
However, invading the West Bank might have brought into the borders of the expanding State of Israel a massive Arab population it could not absorb.
The Negev desert was an empty space for expansion, so the main war effort shifted to Negev from early October.
Committed to Yoav were three infantry and one armoured brigades, who were given the task of breaking through the Egyptian lines. In the so-called " Faluja Pocket ", an encircled Egyptian force was able to hold out for four months until the Armistice Agreements , when the village was peacefully transferred to Israel and the Egyptian troops left.
On 19 October, Operation Ha-Har commenced in the Jerusalem Corridor , while a naval battle also took place near Majdal now Ashkelon , with three Israeli corvettes facing an Egyptian corvette with air support.
An Israeli sailor was killed and four wounded, and two of the ships were damaged. One Egyptian plane was shot down, but the corvette escaped.
On 22 October, Israeli naval commandos using explosive boats sank the Egyptian flagship Emir Farouk , and damaged an Egyptian minesweeper.
The fort's Egyptian defenders had previously repulsed eight attempts to take it, including two during Operation Yoav.
Israeli forces bombarded the fort before an assault with artillery and airstrikes by B bombers. After breaching the outlying fences without resistance, the Israelis blew a hole in the fort's outer wall, prompting the Egyptian soldiers manning the fort to surrender without a fight.
The defeat prompted the Egyptians to evacuate several nearby positions, including hills the IDF had failed to take by force.
The main assaults were spearheaded by mechanized forces, while Golani Brigade infantry covered the rear. An Egyptian counterattack was repulsed.
The Egyptians planned another counterattack, but it failed after Israeli aerial reconnaissance revealed Egyptian preparations, and the Israelis launched a preemptive strike.
About Egyptians were killed, and 5 tanks were destroyed, with the Israelis losing 5 killed and 30 wounded.
During five days of fighting, the Israelis secured the Western Negev, expelling all Egyptian forces from the area. Israeli forces subsequently launched raids into the Nitzana area, and entered the Sinai Peninsula on 28 December.
Israeli forces pulled out of the Sinai on 2 January following joint British-American pressure and a British threat of military action.
IDF forces regrouped at the border with the Gaza Strip. Israeli forces attacked Rafah the following day, and after several days of fighting, Egyptian forces in the Gaza Strip were surrounded.
On 28 December, the Alexandroni Brigade failed to take the Falluja Pocket, but managed to seize Iraq el-Manshiyeh and temporarily hold it. The Israelis lost 87 soldiers.
On 5 March, Operation Uvda was launched following nearly a month of reconnaissance, with the goal of securing the Southern Negev from Jordan.
The IDF entered and secured the territory, but did not meet significant resistance along the way, as the area was already designated to be part of the Jewish state in the UN Partition Plan, and the operation meant to establish Israeli sovereignty over the territory rather than actually conquer it.
The Golani, Negev , and Alexandroni brigades participated in the operation, together with some smaller units and with naval support. The raising of the Ink Flag is considered to be the end of the war.
As the fighting progressed and Israel mounted an incursion into the Sinai, the Royal Air Force began conducting almost daily reconnaissance missions over Israel and the Sinai.
High-flying British aircraft frequently flew over Haifa and Ramat David Airbase , and became known to the Israelis as the "shuftykeit.
Peake opened fire with his cannons, causing a fire to break out in the port engine. The aircraft turned to sea and lowered its altitude, then exploded and crashed off Ashdod.
The pilot and navigator were both killed. The pilots had spotted smoking vehicles and were drawn to the scene out of curiosity.
Israeli soldiers on the ground, alerted by the sound of the approaching Spitfires and fearing another Egyptian air attack, opened fire with machine guns.
One Spitfire was shot down by a tank-mounted machine gun, while the other was lightly damaged and rapidly pulled up.
All three Spitfires were shot down, and one pilot was killed. Two pilots were captured by Israeli soldiers and taken to Tel Aviv for interrogation, and were later released.
The Israeli formation was led by Ezer Weizman. Weizman's plane and two other British aircraft also suffered light damage during the engagement.
During the battle, British Tempest pilots treated British Spitfires as potential Israeli aircraft until the British Spitfire pilots were told by radio to wiggle their wings to be more clearly identifiable.
The engagement ended when the Israelis realized the danger of their situation and disengaged, returning to Hatzor Airbase. Israeli troops subsequently visited the crash sites, removed various parts, and buried the other aircraft.
However, the Israelis did not manage to conceal the wrecks in time to prevent British reconnaissance planes from photographing them.
An RAF salvage team was deployed to recover the wrecks, entering Israeli territory during their search. Two were discovered inside Egypt, while Tattersfield's Tempest was found north of Nirim , four miles inside Israel.
Interviews with local Arabs confirmed that the Israelis had visited the crash sites to remove and bury the wrecks. Tattersfield was initially buried near the wreckage, but his body was later removed and reburied at the British War Cemetery in Ramla.
British troops in the Middle East were placed on high alert with all leave cancelled, and British citizens were advised to leave Israel. The Royal Navy was also placed on high alert.
At Hatzor Airbase, the general consensus among the pilots, most of whom had flown with or alongside the RAF during World War II, was that the RAF would not allow the loss of five aircraft and two pilots to go without retaliation, and would probably attack the base at dawn the next day.
That night, in anticipation of an impending British attack, some pilots decided not to offer any resistance and left the base, while others prepared their Spitfires and were strapped into the cockpits at dawn, preparing to repel a retaliatory airstrike.
However, despite pressure from the squadrons involved in the incidents, British commanders refused to authorize any retaliatory strikes.
The day following the incident, British pilots were issued a directive to regard any Israeli aircraft infiltrating Egyptian or Jordanian airspace as hostile and to shoot them down, but were also ordered to avoid activity close to Israel's borders.
Later in January , the British managed to prevent the delivery of aviation spirit and other essential fuels to Israel in retaliation for the incident.
The British Foreign Office presented the Israeli government with a demand for compensation over the loss of personnel and equipment.
However, many of the resolution's articles were not fulfilled, since these were opposed by Israel, rejected by the Arab states, or were overshadowed by war as the conflict continued.
Largely leftover World War II era weapons were used by both sides. Egypt had some British equipment; the Syrian army had some French.
German, Czechoslovak and British equipment was used by Israel. The Armistice Demarcation Lines, as set by the agreements, saw the territory under Israeli control encompassing approximately three-quarters of the prior British administered Mandate as it stood after Transjordan 's independence in Israel controlled territories of about one-third more than was allocated to the Jewish State under the UN partition proposal.
The armistice lines were known afterwards as the " Green Line ". The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization and Mixed Armistice Commissions were set up to monitor ceasefires, supervise the armistice agreements, to prevent isolated incidents from escalating, and assist other UN peacekeeping operations in the region.
Just before the signing of the Israel-Transjordan armistice agreement, general Yigal Allon proposed a military offensive to conquer the West Bank up to the Jordan River as the natural, defensible border of the state.
Ben-Gurion refused, although he was aware that the IDF was militarily strong enough to carry out the conquest.
He feared the reaction of Western powers and wanted to maintain good relations with the United States and not to provoke the British. More, the results of the war were already satisfactory and Israeli leaders had to build a state.
About 4, were soldiers and the rest were civilians. The exact number of Arab casualties is unknown. One estimate places the Arab death toll at 7,, including 3, Palestinians, 2, Egyptians, 1, Jordanians, and 1, Syrians.
According to Henry Laurens , the Palestinians suffered double the Jewish losses, with 13, dead, 1, of whom are known to have died in combat situations.
Of the remainder, 4, remain nameless but the place, tally and date of their death is known, and a further 7,, for whom only the place of death is known, not their identities nor the date of their death.
According to Laurens, the largest part of Palestinian casualties consisted of non-combatants and corresponds to the successful operations of the Israelis.
During the — Civil War in Mandatory Palestine and the Arab—Israeli War that followed, around , Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, out of approximately 1,, Arabs living in former British Mandate of Palestine.
In , the UN Conciliation Commission for Palestine estimated that the number of Palestinian refugees displaced from Israel was , This number did not include displaced Palestinians inside Israeli-held territory.
More than Arab villages, and about ten Jewish villages and neighborhoods, were depopulated during the Arab—Israeli conflict, most of them during According to estimate based on earlier census, the total Muslim population in Palestine was 1,, in Displaced Palestinian Arabs, known as Palestinian refugees , were settled in Palestinian refugee camps throughout the Arab world.
Arab nations refused to absorb Palestinian refugees, instead keeping them in refugee camps while insisting that they be allowed to return. Refugee status was also passed on to their descendants, who were also largely denied citizenship in Arab states, except in Transjordan.
The Palestinian refugee problem and debate about the Palestinian right of return are also major issues of the Arab—Israeli conflict. Palestinians and their supporters have staged annual demonstrations and commemorations on 15 May of each year, which is known to them as " Nakba Day ".
The popularity and number of participants in these annual Nakba demonstrations has varied over time. During the Second Intifada after the failure of the Camp David Summit , the attendance at the demonstrations against Israel increased.
During the War, around 10, Jews were forced to evacuate their homes from Arab dominated parts of former Mandatory Palestine.
The remaining came mostly from Europe, including , from the , displaced Jews of World War II living in refugee camps and urban centers in Germany, Austria, and Italy, [] and more than , coming from Eastern Europe, [] mainly Romania and Poland over , each.
On the establishment of the state, a top priority was given to a policy for the "ingathering of exiles", and the Mossad LeAliyah Bet gave key assistance to the Jewish Agency to organize immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, and arrange for their transport to Israel.
For Ben-Gurion, a fundamental defect of the State was that 'it lacked Jews'. Jewish immigrants from Arab and Muslim countries left for numerous reasons.
The war's outcome had exacerbated Arab hostilities to local Jewish communities. News of the victory aroused messianic expectations in Libya and Yemen; Zionism had taken root in many countries; active incentives for making aliyah formed a key part of Israeli policy; and better economic prospects and security were to be expected from a Jewish state.
Some Arab governments, Egypt, for example, held their Jewish communities hostage at times. Persecution, political instability, and news of a number of violent pogroms also played a role.
Some ,—1,, Jews eventually left the Arab world over the next three decades as a result of these various factors. Israel initially relied on Jewish Agency -run tent camps known as immigrant camps to accommodate displaced Jews from Europe and several Muslim-majority states.
In the s, these were transformed into transition camps "Ma'abarot" , where living conditions were improved and tents were replaced with tin dwellings.
Unlike the situation in the immigrant camps, when the Jewish Agency provided for immigrants, residents of the transition camps were required to provide for themselves.
These camps began to decline in , with the last one closing in The camps were largely transformed into permanent settlements known as development towns , while others were absorbed as neighborhoods of the towns they were attached to, and the residents were given permanent housing in these towns and neighborhoods.
Most development towns eventually grew into cities. Some Jewish immigrants were also given the vacant homes of Palestinian refugees.
There were also attempts to settle Jewish refugees from Arab and Muslim countries in moshavim cooperative farming villages , though these efforts were only partially successful, as they had historically been craftsmen and merchants in their home countries, and did not traditionally engage in farm work.
After the war, Israeli and Palestinian historiographies differed on the interpretation of the events of [] in the West the majority view was of a tiny group of vastly outnumbered and ill-equipped Jews fighting off the massed strength of the invading Arab armies; it was also widely believed that the Palestinian Arabs left their homes on the instruction of their leaders.
From , with the opening of the Israeli and British archives, some Israeli historians have developed a different account of the period.
In particular, the role played by Abdullah I of Jordan , the British government, the Arab aims during the war, the balance of force and the events related to the Palestinian exodus have been nuanced or given new interpretations.
The film Cast a Giant Shadow tells the story of an American colonel who was instrumental in the Israeli victory. Western Europe Psychology Press.
Florida State Bar Association. February 21, The Guinness Book of Astronomy 5th ed. Enfield, UK: Guinness Publishing. August 17, Archived from the original on May 30, Retrieved February 25, The Brampton Guardian.
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